Psychology Essays Human Aggression Violence

Psychology Essays Human Aggression Violence Human Aggression Violence There is not one single Psychological theory that can adequately account for human aggression and violence. To what extent do you agree with this claim? Aggression and violence are common occurrences in everyday society and something we are exposed to every day. Barlow and Hill (1985) suggest that television in Britain shows a scene of violence every 16 minutes, whilst the Home office research study 276 (2004) found 45% of women and 26% of men aged 16-59 have experienced some form of interpersonal violence. There have been many attempts to explain why aggression and violence occur, ranging from biological theories – such as evolutionary (Buss, 1990), ethological (Lorenz, 1966) and psychodynamic (Freud, 1920) approaches, to the social/biosocial explanations offered by the frustration/aggression (Dollard et al, 1939), social learning (Bandura, 1961) and excitement transfer theories (Zillmann, 1979). This essay will focus on the psychodynamic explanation of aggression as an instinct and the social learning theory that suggests aggression is a learnt behaviour. The aim is to critically evaluate these theories and to discuss to what extent they are able to explain aggression and violence. Social learning theory focuses on the individual’s interaction with his or her environment. The suggestion is that all behaviour, in this case aggression and violence, is learnt socially. Bandura (1983) puts forward the idea that aggression and violent behaviour â€Å"entail intricate skills that require extensive learning†, in other words we are unable to act in an aggressive or violent way until we learn (from our environment) how to do it. To look at the role of imitation in aggression Bandura (1961) conducted the famous bobo doll experiment. Children were exposed to adults behaving in either aggressive or non-aggressive manners towards a â€Å"bobo† doll. They were then allowed to play in an identical playroom to that previously observed – children were shown to imitate aggressive behaviour. Many different trials of this experiment were conducted; the most famous of these was allowing the children to watch a videotape. In other trials live models and cartoon videos were used. Although this is seen as important evidence to suggest imitation, the theory cannot fully account for aggression and violence. Cumberbatch (1997) describes how the novelty of the Bobo doll may have had some influence over Bandura’s results. A follow up study showed the children who had previously been exposed to the toy were five times less violent than those who were new to it. It could also be argued that the doll was â€Å"designed† to be abused. This also addresses the analogous nature of social learning theory – can behaviour shown towards a doll be used to predict or explain behaviour towards a living being. Baron (1977) defines aggression as â€Å"Behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such behaviour†. The acts of violence and aggression observed by Bandura fail to meet this definition. The doll is of course not a living being and there is no way it could try and avoid any acts towards it. The social learning theory also relies heavily on correlation studies. Lefkowitz et al (1978), Maccoby (1992) and McCord et al (1961) have all found that children who have experienced physical discipline from their parents are generally more aggressive than those who have not. However is the parental discipline the only factor that can account for this violent and aggressive behaviour? Social learning theory fails to explain why not everyone who watches a violent film or plays and aggressive video game will imitate what they have seen. One hundred children may watch a violent film but only one may go out and copy the behaviour they have seen. This suggests that there is something more than imitation. The theory also fails to account to for continuous aggressive or violent behaviour. Why does someone continue to behave in a violent or aggressive way without continuous exposure to such material? Although many psychologists believe that social learning theory can provide a very complete account of aggression and violence (Hill, 1989), there is still the fundamental question, if all violence is imitated then how did the first act of violence occur? (Hewitt, 1989) In contrast to the social learning theory, Freud puts forward the suggestion that aggression and violence are innate drives. This means it is something we are born with and is therefore unavoidable. Freud also puts the emphasis on the person involved and not the place where violence occurs. Throughout our lives we face the conflict between the life instinct and the death instinct. The death instinct is seen as the drive that pushes us towards extinction or non-existence, whilst simultaneously the life instinct strives to preserve life. The death instinct is ultimately self-destructive and if satisfied internally will result in destruction of the individual; it must therefore be channelled outside the self. This may be through displacement – taking out anger on a neutral object or through sublimation – channelling anger into a more socially acceptable activity – for example music or art. Another suggestion, made by Freud’s daughter, is that a person may transform themselves into their victim in order to become the agent of aggression (Freud, 1946). This allows the death instinct to be satisfied – transformation into and identification with the victim allows the perpetrator to attack himself. Freud also believed that divulging in some kind of fantasy violence (for example watching a violent film or playing a violent video game) would satisfy the death instinct and therefore actual violence will be reduced. This is known as catharsis. There is actually very little evidence to support catharsis, however Fleshbach (1955) conducted a study in which he aggravated and insulted his participants. Half were then allowed to indulge in fantasy activities. The group’s aggressive feelings were then measured using projective techniques. The group who engaged in fantasy play were deemed less aggressive. Also a study from the Bureau of justice (2006) in America found a negative correlation between the growth in violent video games and the rate of juvenile violent crime. It should, however, be noted that the first study relied heavily of symbolism whilst the second fails to show a cause and effect relationship between the two. The majority of evidence seems to go against the notion of catharsis. Green et al (1975) found that opportunities for dispersing aggression actually increased aggressive behaviour. During a learning task participants were electrocuted in order to increase aggressive tendencies. Half of the participants were allowed to retaliate in someway against their â€Å"experimenters†, Freud would suggest this would reduce aggressiveness. However, when the participants became the experimenter rather than the subject those who had retaliated previously gave more intense shocks than those who had not retaliated. This is actually more supportive of the social learning theory discussed above. As well as little support evidence there are many other areas upon which Freud is criticised. Hewitt (1989) says that whilst instinctive behaviour is often seen in animals, humans are far more advanced creatures and so are much more aware and able to control their actions. The theory also fails to account for the different types of human aggression and violence. There is no typical form in which the behaviour takes – what determines how the death instinct must be satisfied? We must also account for calculated murders or other violent crimes. Surely, if catharsis occurred the planning of the act would be enough to satisfy the death instinct and therefore prevent the event from taking place. Although Freud’s theory of human aggression and violence puts forward an intelligent argument it fails to recognise and account for many things. Like many psychoanalytic theories it relies on the study of immeasurable and often unknown causes, relying heavily on symbolism and projection. There is also a habit of placing aggressive motives onto non-violent actions. It seems difficult to know precisely where the psychoanalytic definition of aggression lies. This also gives a very bleak outlook on life – violence and aggression are unavoidable and therefore non preventable. One could even suggest Freud justifies violence and aggression – it is after all a human instinct. Both theories can both account for certain aspects of human aggression and violence but they cannot fully explain the phenomena. Biological theories such as Freud’s instinct theory fail to recognise the complex environment we live in, whilst the social learning theory neglects the role of biology. Both also fail to account for the differences that we see between humans. There is a feeling that each perspective seems to explain something that cannot be definitely defined. Whilst one school tries to explain it’s own defined version of aggression and violence it neglects another’s own definition. It can therefore be accepted that not one single theory can explain human aggression and violence, agreeing with the given statement. References Bandura, A (1983). Psychological mechanisms of aggression, New York: Academic Press, in Baron, R, A., Richardson, D R (1994) Human aggression, 2nd edition. New York: Plenum press. Bandura, A (1961). â€Å"Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models† Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 63, 575-582. [online]. Available from: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm Accessed: 17/01/2007 Baron, R.A. (1977). Human Aggression. New York: Plenum press. Barlow, G., Hill, A. (1985) Video violence and children, Suffolk: Hodder and Stoughton. Bureau of Justice (2006). In Jan Jagodzinski, (2006). â€Å"Video game cyber subjects, the ethics of violence and addiction: A psychoanalytic approach†, Psychoanalysis, culture and society, 11, pp 282-303. Buss, D,M. (1990), â€Å"Evolutionary social psychology: Prospects and pitfalls† Motivation and emotion 14, 265-286. In Hogg, M, A. and Vaughan, G, M. (2005) 4th edition. Social psychology. UK: Pearson Prentice Hall. Cumberbatch, G (1997). â€Å"Is television harmful?†, in Cochrane, R and Carroll, D (1997) Psychology and social issues, London: Falmer (pp. 171-181) Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer O. and Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and Aggression. New haven, CT:Yale University Press, in Glassman, Hadad (2006), Approaches to psychology. 4th edition.Norfolk: Open University Press. Feshbach, S. (1955) â€Å"The drive reducing function of fantasy behaviour† Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 50, 3-11. In Glassman, Hadad (2006), Approaches to psychology. 4th edition.Norfolk: Open University Press. Freud, A. (1946) The ego and the mechanisms of defense.New York: International Univer. Press, 1946. In â€Å"Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models† Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 63, 575-582. [online]. Available from: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm Accessed: 17/01/2007 Freud, S. (1920) Beyond the pleasure principle, in Glassman, Hadad (2006), Approaches to psychology. 4th edition.Norfolk: Open University Press. Hewitt, D et al (1989), Social psychology: conflict and continuities, Buckingham: Open University Press Hill, G (2001), Psychology for AS A level. 2nd edition. Glasgow: Oxford university press. Home office research study 276 (2004), Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Findings from the British Crime Survey [online]. London: Home office, Research, development and statistics directorate. Lefkowitz, M, M et al. (1978) â€Å"Parental punishment: A longitudal analysis of effects† Archives of general psychiatry, 35, 186-191. In Glassman, Hadad (2006), Approaches to psychology. 4th edition.Norfolk: Open University Press. Lorenz, K. (1966) On aggression. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, in Hogg, M, A. and Vaughan, G, M. (2005) 4th edition. Social psychology. UK: Pearson Prentice Hall. McCord, W et al (1961) â€Å"Familial correlates of aggression in non delinquent male children†, Journal of abnormal and social psychology. 62, 79-93. In Glassman, Hadad (2006), Approaches to psychology. 4th edition.Norfolk: Open University Press. Mccoby, E,E. (1992) â€Å"The role of parents in the socialisation of children: An historical overview†, Developmental psychology, 28, 1006-1017. In Zillmann, D. (1979). Hostility and aggression. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, in Hogg, M, A. and Vaughan, G, M. (2005) 4th edition. Social psychology. UK: Pearson Prentice Hall.

“An Inspector Calls” By J B Priestley Essay

‘An Inspector Calls’, by J B Priestley, is a play in which he shows how the personalities of two characters can contrast against each other. In this essay I intend to show how the characters Mr Birling and his daughter Sheila contrast to show two views, which contrast on the death of a young woman, caused by the actions of the Birling family. ‘An Inspector Calls’ is set in 1912, in the dining room of the Birling family. The play opens with the Birling’s and Gerald Croft celebrating Sheila and Gerald’s engagement. From this we are able to learn that they are quite well off as they are able to afford to throw a party, unlike most at this time. Once we are a few pages into the play an Inspector calls and commences to explain that a young woman has died, by committing suicide by drinking a bottle of bleach. As the play progresses the Inspector questions the actions of all the Birlings. At the beginning of Act One, we are given a few brief details about Mr Birling by the author. We are told that he is a ‘heavy-looking, rather portentous man in his middle fifties with fairly easy manners but rather provincial in his speech†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This suggests that he is a man of high standards and significance and is quite well mannered, but he is actually a man of low sophistication and a man who is not well educated. Priestley shows all of this by making Birling a ‘single-minded’ man who won’t adopt any new ideas like the ‘higher-class’ mixing with the ‘lower-class’ people. Birling is not a very likable man as he is very vulgar and unsociable towards others. His first thought is to make money to overwhelm his family in whatever way he can, and this usually means being harsh. He is mainly out for financial gain or else to improve his reputation. Birling is very ignorant about the real world and real matters; he is a selfish person. Priestley has deliberately made Birling unreliable by using ironic references to the impossibilities and the progress of mankind; Priestley has used the war (still to come) and the Titanic as examples of mankind (the actual failures). Birling believes that the route to success is through the world of business  and social reputation. He has a very high opinion of himself and has strong beliefs: ‘A man has to make his own ways’ Birling will only consider a man to be true if he has made his own way up the ‘ladder’ from the bottom with little or no help. Although he may be ‘single-minded’ and doesn’t pay much attention to his family, he is still a successful businessman and has made his own honest approach to life. But with this in mind he still lacks refinement and good taste and he will not have anything done to connect the death of Eve to the family as this may dirty the name of the family. In contrast to Birling, Priestley has created the character of Sheila. She is still very like Birling in the way of reputation and greed for money, but she is able to adopt new ideas and cultures, she also seems more in touch with the apparent world. She is living life to the full at the moment before she gets tied down in her marriage to Gerald, which she doesn’t seem to be very interested in. She is a very happy with her position in life at the moment, although she may have been pressurised into the engagement, for her fathers gain, she is still however looking forward to her wedding. Sheila has a bubbly personality that is only going to get destroyed by her family’s greed and actions. Once Sheila learns of Eve’s death she is devastated that a young woman of her age has died, but once she sees the photograph the guilt hits her, as she knows that her actions may have contributed to her death. From this point we learn that Sheila is actually a very jealous person and could be a ‘spoilt brat’ as she will use her high standing position to get what she wants: ‘I went to the manager of Milliards and I told him that if they didn’t get rid of that girl, I’d never go near the place again†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Here she has used her upstanding and her father’s reputation to get what she wants. She knows this will work as they are consid ered to be of importance to locals and who will try to satisfy their needs. She disagrees with her father as they both look at this different and see it different. Sheila soon learns from this mistake and matures as she says that: ‘It’s the only time I’ve ever done anything like that, and I’ll never, do it again to anybody’ She may say that she is going to learn from her  mistakes but she is not very trust worthy and it is difficult for someone to change from what they have always grown up with but she seems genuine and she may well change from this experience. By the end of the investigation Sheila realises that she has the responsibilities for others in the community as well as her self and her family. Priestley has made Sheila’s character represent the In conclusion I think that ‘An Inspector Calls’ is a great play, which shows how two characters can contrast with each other on a the death of Eve Smith. By the end of the play we learn that Mr Birling hasn’t changed his views at all as he still is out for financial gain and to make a better reputation for the family, but Sheila does change from realising that there is more to life than looking after yourself and family and that having a high reputation is not all that you have to look out for; you have to look after the community also. They play ends with a spectacular ending as Gerald phones the Infirmary, only to find out there was no death and the Inspector wasn’t real. They then realise that it was all a hoax, but once they realise this they receive a phone call from the Infirmary to say that a young woman has committed suicide by drinking a bottle of bleach.

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Parents, Teenagers And Educators Often Fail To Realize

Parents, teenagers and educators often fail to realize the potential for problems that alcohol presents to the immature psyche and body (Kay Healey, 1997). Teenage alcohol mishandle is one of the significant issues that influence scholarly execution, cause medical issues and is in charge of the demise of teenage drivers and at some point their travelers. Numerous high school students drink since they think it is cool and don t comprehend the threats of drinking alcohol. Alcohol is the world s third largest risk factor for disease and contributes to 4% of the global burden of disease (Rehm et al., 2009). It is estimated that 2.5 million deaths each year are directly attributable to alcohol, with 9% of deaths in the 15- to 29-year age†¦show more content†¦Thirty-eight percent of youths who have engaged in drinking have reportedly been violent, and 12 percent of those youths were reportedly under the influence of alcohol when they were physically fighting (Vidourek, King, Mer ianos 2016). Of those students, 2.9 percent carried a gun, 9.2 percent carried another weapon, 3.8 percent threatened a student with a weapon, and 27.5 percent threatened to hurt a student by hitting, slapping, or kicking. One in four (22.5 percent) hurt a student by hitting, slapping, or kicking; 2.7 percent hurt a student by using a handgun, knife, or club. One-third (34.7 percent) of students reported involvement in school violence in the past year. Of those students, 2.9 percent carried a gun, 9.2 percent carried another weapon, 3.8 percent threatened a student with a weapon, and 27.5 percent threatened to hurt a student by hitting, slapping, or kicking. One in four (22.5 percent) hurt a student by hitting, slapping, or kicking; 2.7 percent hurt a student by using a handgun, knife, or club (Vidourek, King, Merianos 2016). Majority of those students were males and they were not white and were juniors in high school. 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Taking a Look at Five Star Carpentry - 1768 Words

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How Successful Was Daniel Kleinman in meeting the brief of the Charity Free Essays

For any charity, advertisement and raising awareness of the issue they are campaigning against is an essential part of their running. The NSPCC in particular find that raising awareness of child abuse is of vital importance, and this means that the advertisements they do broadcast have to be extremely effective. After studying an advert produced by Daniel Kleinman for the NSPCC, called The Ventriloquist, I have realized that in order to make an appeal advert as successful as possible, a number of devices must be used or taken into consideration. We will write a custom essay sample on How Successful Was Daniel Kleinman in meeting the brief of the Charity? or any similar topic only for you Order Now The whole purpose of Kleinman’s campaign was to alert the public that there are millions of children out there who have no-one to turn to- and that by simply volunteering just a few hours of their week, they could completely change a child’s life. The title given to the Campaign was ‘Someone to Turn to’, which refers to both adults being more aware of Child Abuse trying to act more productively against it; and also to encourage children to talk to the NSPCC because they are always there for them. This advert in particular focused on alerting the public that Child Abuse is happening even in situations which may seem perfectly ordinary. The child in the advert was in supposedly safe environments with trustworthy figures that should have been protecting her- yet they all failed to notice what was going on, a point illustrated by the fact the man was sat right in front of them and perfectly visible, yet they still couldn’t see him Other than all of this, the main aim of the charity is always to attract more attention to the problem and to encourage more contribution, whether it is through volunteering, donations or even through physically going out and taking action against Child Abuse. In my opinion, the advert is very successful, as it could have easily inspired all of the above events to take place. This is particularly impressive, as the brief Daniel Kleinman received would have been unbelievably difficult to fulfil, considering the sensitivity which has to be given to the subject. It needed to be treated with complete appropriateness, and Kleinman had to take care not to be crude or offensive, but at the same time still highlight the brutality of the issue, both physically and mentally. I feel this is achieved, and that the advert manages to tactfully show how sinister and malevolent the situation is through using effective scenery, expressions, or even silence itself; and therefore illustrates how isolated and mute the victim is. So what is it about the advert which makes it have quite so much impact? Kleinman used a number of technical devices in the advert, which contributed greatly to its success. For a start, he mixed visual effects and real people with animated effects and dummies. The ventriloquist act is very appropriate for several reasons- Firstly; it is a great allegory of how the man completely rules her life- so much that she has stopped being a real human being and is just controlled by him. Secondly, the whole principal of dummies is very chilling and ominous, and so people are alarmed right from the start of the advert when there is a dummy amongst a class of real children. This draws attention to the girl, and our minds immediately focus on her. One of the best used animated effects was the dummy’s eyes. Using animation, the eyes were made larger than they should have been and therefore reflected the girl’s emotions a lot better- similar to Dennis Potter’s idea of using adult actors to represent children, as their larger bodies act as a kind of magnifying glass to the emotions and movements. They dummy’s eyes have this very same effect. They are very expressive, and throughout the advert they look scared, uncertain, alarmed and sad; as well as constantly checking with the man before she speaks. Furthermore, at the end of the video after dismissing her mother’s concerned questions, she closes her eyes for a few seconds so that her complete misery is made obvious. Another technical device used by Kleinman is the soundtrack of the advert, which uses a good mixture between silences, background noises and actual music. The advert begins with just the normal sounds of a school classroom, leading the viewer into a false sense of security, and when the dummy sat on the man’s lap comes into view, it makes it even more disturbing and shocking. Then, as the dummy speaks with the man’s voice, chilling music starts, making the scene even more alarming. This spine-tingling music is used throughout the advert, with the exception of just a few scenes, and results in a growing feeling of suspense, making the overall impact of the commercial much greater. An alternative method used by Kleinman in the soundtrack is silence, an effect which works perfectly in the play park scene. The play park scene is perhaps the most distressing, which is mainly due to the isolation of the surroundings. We are witnessing firsthand a form of Child abuse, and as the viewer we are made to feel helpless- we can see the abuse happening, yet we can’t hear it or do anything about it. In this way, the video is extremely emotive, as it creates an urge in people to take action. However, it is not just the soundtrack which created this feeling, and many other elements of the advert contributed to its success- Obviously, the actual Character and Narrative were a fundamental part. The man who was playing her abuser was extremely convincing in his part, and at some points actually made the viewer cringe with how alarming the scene was. His facial expressions were completely composed, showing how confident he is in treating the girl like this, as if it were perfectly natural. Another part of his characterization which was as equally disturbing was his intimacy with the girl. Throughout the advert she is constantly sat on his lap, an allegory to his domination and control over her. Also, it stressed the fact that no-one can get close to her apart from him; and that she is isolated and separated from everyone else, even her own mother. Another affective part of the staging for the Advert is the fact that no-one else notices the man, stressing the loneliness and seclusion of the girl, and that no-one can get through to her. In fact, it is the exact opposite, and she is shunned away by people- particularly her peers. This is represented predominantly in the bus scene, when everyone is laughing at her- even the paedophile is smirking and appears to be mocking her. Overall, I think that the most important feature in the commercial is the use of narrative, and the swapping of voices. The girl can’t speak for herself; instead the paedophile has completely taken over her life, always present and intimidating. The deep man’s voice is grotesque, and immediately captures the audience’s attention and shocks them, making them mesmerized with the advert and meaning they are affected as much as possible by the advert. Consequently to such enormous affects on the Audience that the advert motivates, it is clear that Kleinman must have used extremely great directing techniques to create such a result. In particular, Kleinman uses lighting and colours a lot to put empathize on the mood of the film, such as putting the Ventriloquist doll under a direct spotlight to draw the viewers attention towards her. This lighting effect also means that the doll has lots of shadows around her, especially falling on the Ventriloquist himself. These shadows represent the malevolence which surrounds the girl constantly, and how her whole life seems like a dark pit of despair. Another technical device which Kleinman used in the advert was the colouring used. Whilst the girl is around other children, the colouring is bright and energetic, as a children’s life should be, but as soon as she is away from them it becomes dreary and sinister- an illusion of what her life is like at home. Throughout the advert, the background to the scenes is mirroring the mood of the soundtrack and lighting, putting empathise on the points being made even more. As part of my research for the making of this Advert, I watched an interview with Kleinman so that I could see what his objectives were whilst creating the advert. From seeing this, I discovered that Kleinman’s idea for the Ventriloquist doll was drawn out of his desire to show how controlled and vulnerable abused children were. Using a Ventriloquist is perfect for this, for they are naturally chilling even away from any fearful situation. Kleinman felt that this automatically brought great tension to the scenes, and complete caught the attention of the viewer- the makings of an ideal advert. Owing to the number of effective elements of the advert mentioned above, it is logical that the impact on the viewers was extremely great. Any child-abuse advert automatically evokes sadness and sympathy from the audience; however because of the in-depth styles of directing which took place in the producing of this commercial, the audience are also made to feel complete empathy towards the girl, and it leaves them with severely distressing thoughts. However, one of the main necessities of the advert was that its message was clear to younger audiences, and in this way the advert does not produce very good results. Due to the depth of the allegorical devices used in the advert, it is quite likely that a younger audience would find it hard to grasp the idea and information which is being portrayed. This is one of Kleinman’s only faults in the production of this advert. In the majority of circumstances, it is young children, who are suffering in these abysmal situations and therefore the appeals also need to be suitable for someone of that age group. What is the use in alerting the public of all these horrendous acts if the children themselves cannot realize what is going on and tell someone? Overall, I think that due to the complexity of the advert, it is not suitable for a younger audience, as it would not have the wanted affect on them and be equivalently useless. Despite all this, the advert is still incredibly emotive. So did Kleinman reach the Charity’s brief? Personally I feel that he did, as the disturbing nature of the advert resulted in the utmost awareness from the audience, meaning that the appeal was even more likely to be successful. This reaction to the advert is exactly that which the Charity wanted- they are inspired to take action against Child Abuse and are made conscious of the reality that Abuse can happen in the most ordinary of situations. How to cite How Successful Was Daniel Kleinman in meeting the brief of the Charity?, Papers

Failure of Activist Fiscal Policy †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Failure of Activist Fiscal Policy. Answer: Introduction: Unhealthy food habit of people exerts additional cost on government by raising the cost of health services. Therefore, steps are taken by government in different countries to shift the food habit of people from unhealthy to a healthy one. Many countries have already imposed tax on sugary foods as they lead to diabetes and cause obesity (theconversation.com 2017). Apart from taxing the unhealthy products, the healthy products such as fruits, vegetables and dairy products should be subsidized to encourage people to include them in their diet. However, effectiveness of tax and subsidy policy depends on the elasticity of products. The estimated elasticity of for high calorie fruit and vegetables are -1.128 and low calorie dairy products is -1.972. When subsidy reduces the price the people raises their demand more than price rise. For products like high and low calorie sweet and sugary snacks, demand is inelastic and measures -0.270 and -0.295 respectively. Tax on this product means a greater taxation burden on buyers and hence reduces demand for these products. The simple idea is that during economic depression government can stimulate private spending and boost economic activity. J. M. Keynes was is favor of governed intervention in the economy. Government intervention in the economy is described with fiscal policy tool. When government reduces tax rate the people have more disposable income to spend and this spurs private consumption spending which is a major part of aggregate expenditure or demand. Similarly, government can raise its spending in different areas that indirectly assist private spending (cis.org.au 2017). The idea of fiscal stimulus has received particular appeal during depression years off 1930. This is the time when identity of central bank and monetary policy was not come into force. Automatic changes in the fiscal position indicates changes that occur in the government budget without active intervention of government. During recession, income of the people declines because of contraction of economic activity. When income reduces, then people pay less taxes and this reduces government tax revenue affecting the budget. Additionally, autonomous changes occur in the expenditure as greater number of people come under different government program. Discretionary fiscal changes are those undertaken by the government in times of high inflation and economic recession. For example, during recession government increases their spending to give stimulus to aggregate spending. Change in the tax rate also comes under discretionary policy changes. In times of recession, government spending raises and tax revenue reduces moving budget towards a deficit. The policy of fiscal contraction is taken in times of high inflation with the objective the contracting demand. Fiscal contraction is taken in the form of raising tax rate or cutting government expenditure. However, cut is government spending for wasteful expenditure has an opposite impact. This form of fiscal contraction contributes to private investment crowd that increase national income (cis.org.au 2017). The improvement under this policy is realized in terms of a low interest rate. This accelerates investment because of the reduced cost of investment and give stimulus to national income. A related consequence of this policy is to strengthen the exchange rate and contributes to an improved trade balance. Monetary policy works with the tools of money supply and interest rate. In times of economic contraction, expansionary monetary policy can be undertaken. This policy is implemented in the form of a cut in the interest rate. In the money market, interest rate is the cost of borrowing and investment. With lower interest rate, this cost is reduced and raises investment. In this way, monetary policy is used to create economic stimulus. Monetary policy is more influential for expansion of financial sector. The strong financial sector of Australia has heavy reliance on foreign borrowing. The external borrowing in the economy is channeled via the banking sector and meets the domestic investors demand (cis.org.au 2017). In such economy relying on financial sector, monetary policy is more effective. References Cis.org.au. (2017).Fiscal Fallacies : The Failure of Activist Fiscal Policy. [online] Available at: https://www.cis.org.au/publications/policy-forum/fiscal-fallacies-the-failure-of-activist-fiscal-policy/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2017]. The Conversation. (2017).Why the government should tax unhealthy foods and subsidise nutritious ones. [online] Available at: https://theconversation.com/why-the-government-should-tax-unhealthy-foods-and-subsidise-nutritious-ones-72790 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2017].